Tenskwatawa :: essays research papers fc

History has not been kind to Tenskwatawa, otherwise known as Lalawethika or The Prophet. He is inevitably compared to his heroic brother Tecumseh and fails to measure up in both physical and moral stature. He seems hidden in the shade of his brother's name, whereas his brother would never have had the stature he received if it were not for The Prophet's religion of classical Indian heritage. Lalawethika seemed to be plentiful of both physical and social shortcomings. An unimpressive-looking man of below-average height, fond of wearing jewelry, especially small medals, which he hung from his pierced nose and ears. His most striking physical characteristic was his damaged right eye, which was permanently closed after he injured it with a bow and arrow. Lalawethika was not a likable person. He was not accepted by the other Shawnee youths and refused to take part in traditionally prestigious male activities such as hunting and fighting. As a young man he boasted of his abilities but seem ed to lack anyambition. He attempted to compensate for his misfortunes but was only counterproductive in making "a truculent, bragging personality that earned him his nickname Lalawethika (The Rattle or Noisemaker)" (p. 73). Two activities Lalawethika liked were drinking and talking. He wasn't as gifted a speaker as his brother Tecumseh, but he was nonetheless manipulative and forceful. Using these qualities he became a medicine man in Tecumseh's village. Lalawethika's transformation from a lazy drunkard into a powerful spiritual leader came after a dream in which he claimed to have been visited by the Great Spirit. He proclaimed his new name to be Tenskwatawa meaning "The Open Door." White settlers began to call him The Prophet because he said the gods had shown him the path to salvation for his people. This new religion called upon Natives to reject white culture and return to the traditional way of life. Tenskwatawa gave up alcohol and urged his followers to do the same. The distinguished changes apparent in Tenskwatawa immensely supported his new way of life. When those sent by The Master of Life took Lalawethika in his dream, they showed him a very fertile land full of game as well as a large wigwam where eternal fires burned. "The Master of Life had chosen him to lead the Indians back down the road toward salvation" (p. 76). At the heart of these new teachings was the belief that the land was held in common by all the tribes.

To What Extent Was the Growth of the Enlightenment Movement?

The growth of the Enlightenment movement was a key long term cause of the French revolution as it questioned the current state of France and challenged unjust class systems. However, there were a number of other long term causes that led to the French revolution. The structure of the Royal government and French society had created restlessness amongst the third estate for quite some time leading to the French revolution. The taxation system was seen as highly unjust amongst the third estate as well and can be seen as an underlying long term cause for the French revolution.The growth of the Enlightenment movement was a major long term cause for the French Revolution. The Enlightenment were a group of intellectual writers and thinkers from Europe in the 18th century whose aim was to apply rational analysis to all activities. This meant they put great emphasis on the unjust systems in place which meant the poorest group had to pay the most taxes, creating a voice for the unhappy third e state and giving them confidence to speak out. This in turn led to the third estate coming together in cascade of anger and uproar against the current system, leading to the French revolution.In addition, the most famous thinkers, Volataire and Montesqieu, were not prepared to accept tradition and attacked the church and despotic government. Their ideologies attracted nearly all of the third estate creating a huge group of people believing in change. This in turn led to the majority of France being ready to challenge the government and monarchy and causing the revolution to start. The Enlightenment movement was very critical of the Ancien regime which influenced many radical thinkers at the time who were ready to lead France against the rich minority.It’s this leadership which got the wheels of the revolution in motion; therefore, the Enlightenment movement played a key part in the occurrence of the French revolution. The structure of the Royal Government was a very important long term cause of the French revolution. King Louis XIV believed that God had given him the divine right to rule and therefore felt the French people should obey him without question. This idea infuriated the large majority of the third estate as there was no clear logical reason why they should obey the King, resulting in restlessness amongst 85% of the population.This long term struggle with the idea of an absolute monarch developed into anger and ultimately led to mass uproar and the French revolution. Furthermore, King Louis XVI had complete power over all aspects of France, ultimately meaning he could do what he wanted. This meant that the third estate had no way of communicating or fashioning a way of improving their lives, leaving them trapped in a life of poverty. This therefore left them no choice but to use physical violence and action to try and get out of their dire circumstances, resulting in a revolution.The taxation system was highly unjust in France during the 18th century and was a key long term cause for the revolution. Firstly, peasants who made up 85% of the population but lived in dire poverty had to pay the most taxes, including Taille, Capitation and Tithe tax. This left the third estate with only just enough to survive which created great anger amongst them as the rich paid nothing. This corrupt taxation system left the third estate trapped in a life of poverty leaving them no choice but to revolt if they wanted any chance of a better life.In addition to this, the clergy and nobility, the two rich estates were exempt from taxes. This illogical system compounded with the Enlightenments highlighting of how unjust France was finally led the majority of France to rise up against their unfair position, in the only way they could through a mass revolution. The final long term cause that played a major in the outbreak of the French revolution was the structure of French society. Firstly, the clergy and nobility collectively took up only arou nd 5% of the population yet they owned a vast amount of land compared to the 85% of the third estate who owned no land at all.This meant they had huge amounts of money tied up in land and a constant food supply which the third estate did not. This structure of class left the third estate in poverty yet they saw the riches of the two upper estates when they worked their land daily. This in turn created mass anger which had built up over time leading to a collective plea for change, displayed by the outbreak of the revolution. Furthermore, the two upper estates had great power and could sway the king’s decisions to an extent. This was shown when Louis tried to reform tax with Turgo but nobility quickly disagreed and Louis then sacked Turgo.The power the two upper estates possessed created great unrest amongst the third estate as they felt they deserved more power due to the fact that they paid the majority of taxes. The fact that they had no bargaining powers forced them to try and bring about change in the way of revolution, therefore, highlighting the fact that the structure of French society was key long term cause for the revolution. Overall, all the four causes had some bearing on the outbreak of the French Revolution, however, some more than others.The growth of the enlightenment movement did influence many radical revolutionaries into taking action and created a collective group ready for change, but I feel that it was not the key underlying cause which made people revolt. I believe that the structure of French society was the main cause for the French revolution as it left the third estate trapped in poverty for a long period of time while the upper two estates prospered in a life of luxury. This ultimately left the third estate no option but to take radical action to try and bring about change and is therefore the main reason for the outbreak of the French revolution.

Conjugation of French Verb Entrer (to Enter)

The French verb  entrer means to enter and its a very useful word to know. As you use French in more conversations or travel to French-speaking regions, youll find forms of  entrer  everywhere. Just like with all verbs, when we want to say entered or entering, the verb needs to be conjugated. A short lesson will demonstrate how to do that. Conjugating the French Verb  Entrer Entrer  is not only a very common verb, it also follows a very common verb conjugation pattern. This is a  regular -ER verb  and it shares the same infinitive endings with similar verbs like  enseigner  (to teach),  exister  (to exist), and many others. As with all French verb conjugations, begin by identifying the verb stem:  entr-. We can then add a new ending to match the present, future, or imperfect past tense with the appropriate subject pronoun. For instance, I enter is jentre and we will enter is nous entrerons. The easiest way to memorize all these verb forms is to practice them in context. Luckily, there are plenty of opportunities in everyday life to utilize  entrer. Subject Present Future Imperfect j' entre entrerai entrais tu entres entreras entrais il entre entrera entrait nous entrons entrerons entrions vous entrez entrerez entriez ils entrent entreront entraient The Present Participle of  Entrer The  present participle  of  entrer  is  entrant. Not only is it a verb, you can also use it as an adjective, gerund, or noun in some circumstances. The Past Participle and Passà © Composà © To express the past tense entered, you can use either the imperfect forms or the  passà © composà ©. Forming the latter is quite simple and you might find it the easier option of the two. To construct it, begin by conjugating the  auxiliary verb  Ãƒ ªtre  according to the sentences subject pronoun. Then, add the  past participle  entrà ©. As an example, I entered becomes je suis entrà © and we entered is nous sommes entrà ©. More Simple  Entrer  Conjugations Should you find that the action of entering is subjective or uncertain, use the subjunctive verb mood. Similarly, the conditional verb mood implies that entering will only occur if something else happens. The possibility of needing the passà © simple or the imperfect subjunctive is low. Thats because these are primarily reserved for writing. Yet, knowing them will help your reading comprehension. Subject Subjunctive Conditional Passà © Simple Imperfect Subjunctive j' entre entrerais entrai entrasse tu entres entrerais entras entrasses il entre entrerait entra entrà ¢t nous entrions entrerions entrà ¢mes entrassions vous entriez entreriez entrà ¢tes entrassiez ils entrent entreraient entrà ¨rent entrassent Forming short, direct commands or requests is very easy with the imperative verb form. When using this, the subject pronoun is not required, so tu entre can be entre. Imperative (tu) entre (nous) entrons (vous) entrez

President Lyndon B. Johnson s Great Society - 1248 Words

-War on Poverty As part of president Lyndon B. Johnson’s â€Å"Great Society†, which focused on improving the quality of life among all Americans, he initiated the War on Poverty during the 1960s. The War on Poverty was built by using government funding to improve poverty-stricken areas of the country and to start â€Å"...a new food stamp program, giving poor people greater choice in obtaining food, and rent supplements that provided alternatives to public housing projects for some poor families.(Roark, Pg.936). Johnson also focused in improving education for children and also job training for adults. In addition, two major programs were produced after The War on Poverty was established, which were Medicare and Medicaid. These programs helped†¦show more content†¦As Malcolm X continued to encourage individual black power, his ideology gained many followers, especially amongst poor African American city folk. Eventually, Malcolm X’s ideas were being adopted by major c ivil rights groups such as SNCC and CORE. Overall, Malcolm X was significant for his contributions to the civil rights movement by preaching about black nationalism. (Roark, Pg.946) - AIM AIM, or American Indian Movement, was established by two Native Americans, Dennis Banks and George Mitchell, in order to resolve issues in urban areas where Native Americans lived and â€Å"...protect Indians from police harassment, secure antipoverty funds, and establish ‘survival schools’ to teach Indian history and values.†(Roark, Pg.947). Influenced by the countless civil rights movements occurring in 1960s America, Native Americans saw this as an opportunity to reclaim their natural rights and heritage as they once had before Europeans had civilized the United States. AIM sought justice for their cause through occupying land that their ancestors had previously owned and taking their complaints to the government. Eventually, the efforts of AIM payed off and Native Americans â€Å"...won the end of relocation and termination policies, greater tribal sovereignty and control over community services, protection of Indian religious practices, and a measure of res pect and pride.†(Roark, Pg. 948). AIM was historically significant since the movement

The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck - 593 Words

In difficult times its nearly impossible to stay hopeful expesially when the whole world is against you making things even more difficult. In the book â€Å"The Grapes of Wrath† Steinbeck shows the readers how truly miserable the Great Depression was for the people who have lived through it . The way he does this is by showing the true colors of the Depression and how it affected the lives of an everyday family. The â€Å"fambly† is forced to leave their home due to foreclosure, they travel to California slowly loosing members of their family to death and their own decisions to move on alone. In the â€Å"Grapes of Wrath† John Steinbeck lets you see the Great Depression through the eyes of the characters. Granpa was the first to die he died of old age and he was so desperate to stay at home because it was where he was born and where he raised his family it felt like the land did not want him to leave. Then, slowly they lose more and more people Granma and Casey also die but in different ways Casy died because he was murdered by a cop while granma died of old age and sadness.[ Leaving the rest of the family to go through extreme hopelessness]. Any glimpse of hope the† Fambly† receives is quickly taken away making life even more difficult for the characters to live. Rose of Sharon goes through a lot during the story, her husband leaves her not only does he leave her he leaves her while she is pregnant. To make the whole thing worse she ends up having a still born.Show MoreRelatedThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck Essay1622 Words   |  7 Pages The Grapes of Wrath John Steinbeck, widely viewed as one of the most finest and powerful American writer, born to a middle-class family in 1902 in the Salinas Valley of California. Steinbeck is a writer who often spoke for the people. The Grapes of Wrath is a great movie, published in 1939, filled with many universal truths and views on human nature and society, especially where class is concerned. In the article, John Steinbeck The Grapes a wrath: A Call to Action says, â€Å"Steinbeck’s novel showcasedRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck1075 Words   |  5 PagesKirsten Lloyd Mr. Eldridge AP Junior English 21 August 2014 Grapes of Wrath â€Å"Sometimes even to live is an act of courage.† (Seneca), In the 1939 novel, The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck, the reader accompanies the Joad family as they struggle to escape the crippling Dust Bowl of the mid- 1930’s. In hopes of establishing a new life for themselves after being forced off their land the family embark on a journey from Oklahoma to California in search of fruitful crops and steady work alongRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck1563 Words   |  7 Pages John Steinbeck’s novel, The Grapes of Wrath, depicts a migrant farming family in the 1930s. During this time, life revolved around the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl, making circumstances difficult for almost everyone involved, especially those who had little. This time of drought and despair caused people to lose hope in everything they’ve ever known, even themselves, but those who did not, put their hope in the â€Å"promised land† of California. Here, the grass was thought to be truly greenerRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck1189 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"The Grapes of Wrath† Shortly after being released John Steinbeck’s book â€Å"The Grapes of Wrath† was banned because many critics viewed the novel as promoting communist propaganda, or socialist ideas. The ideas that many of these critics point to is Steinbeck’s depiction of the Big Banks/ Businesses as monsters, the comparison of Government camps to a utopia in contrast of the makeshift â€Å"Hoovervilles,† and the theme of the community before the individual, In his novel â€Å"The Grapes of Wrath† John SteinbeckRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck1093 Words   |  5 Pages In John Steinbeck s The Grapes of Wrath, Tom Joad and his family are forced from their home during the 1930’s Oklahoma Dust Bowl and set out for California along with thousands of others in search of jobs, land, and hope for a brighter future. The Grapes of Wrath is Steinbeck’s way to expound about the injustice and hardship of real migrants during the Depression-era. H e utilizes accurate factual information, somber imagery, and creates pathos, allowing readers connections to the Joad’s plightRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck1190 Words   |  5 PagesThe Grapes of Wrath April 14th, 1939, John Steinbeck published the novel, The Grapes of Wrath. The novel became an immediate best seller, with selling over 428,900 copies. Steinbeck, who lived through both the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl, sought to bring attention to how families of Oklahoma outdid these disasters. Steinbeck focuses on families of Oklahoma, including the Joads family, who reside on a farm. The Joad family is tested with hardship when life for them on their farm takesRead MoreThe Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck702 Words   |  3 PagesJohn Steinbeck’s use of the intercalary chapters in The Grapes of Wrath helps weave the reader’s sympathy of the Joad family into a more broad sympathy for the migrant farmers as a whole, in the hopes that the readers would then be compelled to act upon what they have read. During the Great Depression, people had a big disconnect about what was happening in various parts of the country. People often struggle to find sympathy for events when they can’t even visualize a person who is suffering throughRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck2144 Words   |  9 PagesThe Grapes of Wrath is a well-known beloved novel of American Literature, written by John Steinbeck and published in 1939. Whoever said a road is just a road has not read The Grapes of Wrath. From the time we read when Tom Joad, novel’s protagonist, returns home after four years in prison; the meaning of roads changed. Route 66, also known as the mother road the road of flight, was a lifeline road, which allowed thousands of families to pursue their hopes and dreams. This road is also the road thatRead MoreThe Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck1014 Words   |  5 PagesJohn Steinbeck’s novel, The Grapes of Wrath, was first written and later published in the 1939. Fr om the time of its publication to date, the exemplary yet a simple book has seen Steinbeck win a number of highly coveted awards including Pulitzer Prize in 1940 and later on Nobel Prize for Literature in 1962. Set at the time of the Great Depression, the book most remarkably gives a descriptive account of the Oklahoma based sharecropper Joad’ poor family in the light of economic hardship, homelessnessRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck1064 Words   |  5 PagesThe Grapes of Wrath, originated from a John Steinbeck’s book, a legendary film that focus on a major point of American history. The story follows the Joad family on their journey to California trying to survive the hardships. This film, focus on the social problems of America like the Dust bowl, The Great Depression, and industrialism. The Grapes of Wrath was filmed in a journalistic-documentary style, which displayed the realism of the epidemic in the thirties. The thirties the period The Grapes

Television Media Audience and Analysis

Question : Briefly discuss arguments for and against using television ratings to measure television audiences. Use examples to substantiate your argument. Answer : Audience analysis is a task that is basically performed by the technical writers in the early stages of the project which involves audiences. The task is all about assessing the audience to make sure that the information provided to them are at appropriate level. Defining audience is an easy job but requires considering the factors like culture, age and the knowledge of the subject. After considering all these factors carefully, a profile of the intended audience is created allowing the writers to write in a manner that the audience understands (Alasuutari Pertti, 1999). Audience analysis involves gathering information about the recipients of the written, visual and oral communication. There are plenty of methods that are used as a technical communicator that are used to conduct analysis since the task of completing the task of audience analysis is overwhelming. Writers sometimes also use conversations to help themselves to complete the audience analysis. Other than that, there is another technique that can be used to analyse audience and is known as the bottom up approach (Slater, Michael Flora, 1991). Once we talk about audience analysis, the concept of audience reception comes into existence; audience reception is the theory that came in wide use as per characterizing the wave of audience research which started in communication and cultural studies in 1980s and 1990s. As an entire picture is concerned, it is a cultural perspective that tends to concern one way or another exploring active choices using the interceptions made by the media and by their consumers (Whannel Garry, 1998). The concept of audience reception theory can be traced back to the work done by the British sociologist, named Stuart Hall and his communication model in an essay named as Encoding/Decoding. Halls model has put forward three major central premises which are: 1. The same event can be encoded in more than one way. 2. The message might contain more than one possible readin. 3. Understanding a problem can be critical. Audience analysis emphasize on the diversity of the responses that give popular culture artifacts that can be examined as directly as possible on the audience who are used for popular texts (Wood Helen, 2007). As US is concerned, the term TV rating makes people think of the Nielsen Media Research that came to be as the measurement service for the television industry and the people watching the television shows. Nielsen uses the technique of statistical sampling that uses the technique to predict that outcomes as the elections (Wood Helen, 2007). They tend to create a sample audience and then they count on how the audience views each and every program. They extrapolate the samples and then estimate the number of viewers and then estimate the entire population watching the show. To understand what they are watching and find out what people are watching, the company gets around 5000 households that agree to be a part of the representative sample for the estimation of the national ratings (Wood Helen, 2007). There have been 99million households in the United States that has been watching TV. To find out what these people are watching they install meters that select the sample of home tracks when they watch the TV sets on the channel that are tuned to. They tend to install a black box, which is just a computer or a modem that gathers and sends the information to the company which has central computer (Whannel Garry, 1998). The national TV rely on this meters that ensure reasonably on the accurate results that the company uses audits and the quality and regularly compares on the ratings to get the different samples and the measurement methods. Understanding on how they reach the consumers is the way the audience measurement and helps the media and the companies to make the right plans and programming for the decisions. Choosing what program to watch is another thing that make up for the planning and programing decisions by the user. Television and the way we tend to watch it, has come a long way since measuring audience stated in 1950s. References: Alasuutari, Pertti, ed.Rethinking the media audience: the new agenda. SAGE Publications Ltd, 1999. Slater, Michael D., and June A. Flora. "Health lifestyles: audience segmentation analysis for public health interventions."Health Education Behavior18, no. 2 (1991): 221-233. McQuail, Denis.Audience analysis. Sage publications, 1997. Ha, Louisa, and E. Lincoln James. "Interactivity reexamined: A baseline analysis of early business web sites."Journal of Broadcasting Electronic Media42, no. 4 (1998): 457-474. Whannel, Garry. "Reading the sports media audience."Media Sport(1998): 221-232. Wood, Helen. "The mediated conversational floor: an interactive approach to audience reception analysis."Media, Culture Society29, no. 1 (2007): 75-103. Maibach, Edward, Connie Roser-Renouf, and Anthony Leiserowitz. "Global warming's Six Americas 2009: an audience segmentation analysis." (2009). Silverstone, Roger, and Eric Hirsch, eds.Consuming technologies: Media and information in domestic spaces. Psychology Press, 1992.

Isolation of Cholesterol by Egg Yolk Essay Example

Isolation of Cholesterol by Egg Yolk Essay The degradation of cholesterol by Pseudomonas sp. NCIB 10590 under aerobic conditions. 1. R W Owen, 2. A N Mason  and 3. R F Bilton ABSTRACT The metabolic pathway of cholesterol degradation by bacteria has not been completely established. Several possible intermediates have not been identified and many pathway delineations have not involved the use of the cholesterol molecule per se and just one bacterial species. The bacterial degradation of cholesterol by Pseudomonas sp. NCIB has been studied. Major biotransformation products included cholest-5-en-3-one, cholest-4-en-3-one, 26-hydroxycholest-4-en-3-one, androsta-1, 4-dien-3-17-dione, cholest-4-en-3-one-26-oic acid, chol-4-en-3-one-24-oic acid, pregn-4-en-3-one-20-carboxylic acid, and pregna-1, 4-dien-3-one-20-carboxylic acid. Studies with selected intermediates have enabled the elucidation of a comprehensive pathway of cholesterol degradation by bacteria. November 1983  The Journal of Lipid Research,  24,  1500-1511. http://www. jlr. org/content/24/11/1500. short Mycobacterial persistence requires the utilization of host cholesterol 1. Amit K. Pandey  and 2. Christopher M. Sassetti  * +Author Affiliations 1. Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655 1. Edited by Barry R. Bloom, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, and approved January 22, 2008 (received for review November 26, 2007) Abstract A hallmark of tuberculosis is the ability of the causative agent,  Mycobacterium tuberculosis, to persist for decades despite a vigorous host immune response. We will write a custom essay sample on Isolation of Cholesterol by Egg Yolk specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Isolation of Cholesterol by Egg Yolk specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Isolation of Cholesterol by Egg Yolk specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Previously, we identified a mycobacterial gene cluster,  mce4, that was specifically required for bacterial survival during this prolonged infection. We now show thatmce4  encodes a cholesterol import system that enables  M. tuberculosis  to derive both carbon and energy from this ubiquitous component of host membranes. Cholesterol import is not required for establishing infection in mice or for growth in resting macrophages. However, this function is essential for persistence in the lungs of chronically infected animals and for growth within the IFN-? -activated macrophages that predominate at this stage of infection. This finding indicates that a major effect of IFN-? stimulation may be to sequester potential pathogens in a compartment devoid of more commonly used nutrients. The unusual capacity to catabolize sterols allows  M. tuberculosis  to circumvent this defense and thereby sustain a persistent infection. Published online before print  March 11, 2008, doi:10. 1073/pnas. 0711159105 http://www. pnas. org/content/105/11/4376. abstract Initial Steps in the Anoxic Metabolism of Cholesterol by the DenitrifyingSterolibacterium denitrificans* ¦ 1. Yin-Ru Chiang  Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã‚  , 2. Wael Ismail  Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã‚  , 3. Michael Muller  Ã‚ §Ã‚  and 4. Georg Fuchs  Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã‚  1 +Author Affiliations 1. Mikrobiologie, Fakultat fur Biologie, Universitat Freiburg, Schanzlestrasse 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany and the  Ã‚ §Institut fur Pharmazeutische Wissenschaften, Universitat Freiburg, Albertstrasse 25, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany 1. 1  To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel. : 497612032649 ; Fax: 497612032626; E-mail:  georg. [emailprotected] uni-freiburg. de. Abstract The anoxic metabolism of the ubiquitous triterpene cholesterol is challenging because of its complex chemical structure, low solubility in water, low number of active functional groups, and the presence of four alicyclic rings and two quaternary carbon atoms. Consequently, the aerobic metabolism depends on oxygenase catalyzed reactions requiring molecular oxygen as co-substrate. Sterolibacterium denitrificans  is shown to metabolize cholesterol anoxically via the oxidation of ring A, followed by an oxygen-independent hydroxylation of the terminal C-25 of the side chain. The anaerobic hydroxylation of a tertiary carbon using water as oxygen donor is unprecedented and may be catalyzed by a novel molybdenum containing enzyme. First Published onFebruary 16, 2007, doi:10. 1074/jbc. M610963200May 4, 2007  The Journal of Biological Chemistry,  282,13240-13249. http://www. bc. org/content/282/18/13240. abstract Coxiella burnetii  Expresses a Functional  [pic]24 Sterol Reductase[pic] Stacey D. Gilk,  Paul A. Beare,  and Robert A. Heinzen* Coxiella Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Intracellular Parasites, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Mon tana 59840 Received 12 July 2010/ Accepted 10 September 2010 Coxiella burnetii, the etiological agent of human Q fever, occupies  a unique niche inside the host cell, where it replicates in  a modified acidic phagolysosome or parasitophorous vacuole (PV). The PV membrane is cholesterol-rich, and inhibition of host  cholesterol metabolism negatively impacts PV biogenesis and  pathogen replication. The precise source(s) of PV membrane cholesterol  is unknown, as is whether the bacterium actively diverts and/or  modifies host cell cholesterol or sterol precursors. C. burnetii  lacks enzymes for  de novo  cholesterol biosynthesis; however,  the organism encodes a eukaryote-like  [pic]24 sterol reductase homolog,  CBU1206. Absent in other prokaryotes, this enzyme is predicted  to reduce sterol double bonds at carbon 24 in the final step  of cholesterol or ergosterol biosynthesis. In the present study,  we examined the functional activity of CBU1206. Amino acid alignments  revealed the greatest sequence identity (51. 7%) with a  [pic]24 sterol  reductase from the soil amoeba  Naegleria gruberi. CBU1206 activity  was examined by expressing the protein in a  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  erg4  mutant under the control of a galactose-inducible promoter. Erg4 is a yeast  [pic]24 sterol reductase responsible for the final  reduction step in ergosterol synthesis. Like Erg4-green fluorescent  protein (GFP), a CBU1206-GFP fusion protein localized to the  yeast endoplasmic reticulum. Heterologous expression of CBU1206  rescued  S. cerevisiae erg4  sensitivity to growth in the presence  of brefeldin A and cycloheximide and resulted in new synthesis  of ergosterol. These data indicate CBU1206 is an active sterol  reductase and suggest the enzyme may act on host sterols during  C. burnetii  intracellular growth. Journal of Bacteriology, December 2010, p. 6154-6159, Vol. 192, No. 23 0021-9193/10/$12. 00+0   Ã‚  Ã‚   doi:10. 1128/JB. 00818-10 Copyright  © 2010,  American Society for Microbiology. http://jb. asm. org/cgi/content/abstract/192/23/6154 Study of Anoxic and Oxic  Cholesterol  Metabolism  bySterolibacterium denitrificans[pic] Yin-Ru Chiang,1,[pic]  Wael Ismail,1,[pic]  Dimitri Heintz,2  Christine Schaeffer,2Alain Van Dorsselaer,2  and Georg Fuchs1* Mikrobiologie, Fakultat Biologie, Albert-Ludwigs-Universitat Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany,1  Laboratoire de spectrometrie de masse Bio-Organique, CRNS, ECPM, Universite Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, France2 Received 21 September 2007/ Accepted 12 November 2007 The initial enzymes and genes involved in the anoxic metabolism  of  cholesterolwere studied in the denitrifying bacterium  Sterolibacterium  denitrificans  Chol-1ST. The second enzyme of the proposed pathway,  cholest-4-en-3-one-[pic]1-dehydrogenase (AcmB), was partially purified. Based on amino acid sequence analysis, a gene probe was derived  to screen a cosmid library of chromosomal DNA for the  acmB  gene. A positive clone comprising a 43-kbp DNA insert was sequenced. In addition to the  acmB  gene, the DNA fragment harbored theacmA  gene, which encodes the first enzyme of the pathway,  cholesteroldehydrogenase/isomerase. The  acmA  gene was overexpressed, and  the recombinant dehydrogenase/isomerase was purified. This enzyme  catalyzes the predicted transformation of  cholesterol  to cholest-4-en-3-one. S. denitrificanscells grown aerobically with  cholesterol  exhibited  the same pattern of soluble proteins and cell extracts formed  the same  14C-labeled products from [14C]cholesterol  as cells  that were grown under anoxic, denitrifying conditions. This  is especially remarkable for the late products that are formedby  anaerobic hydroxylation of the  cholesterol  side chain with  water as the oxygen donor. Hence, this facultative anaerobic  bacterium may use the anoxic pathway lacking any oxygenase-dependent  reaction also under oxic conditions. This confers metabolic  flexibility to such facultative anaerobic  bacteria. Journal of Bacteriology, February 2008, p. 905-914, Vol. 190, No. 3 0021-9193/08/$08. 00+0   Ã‚  Ã‚   doi:10. 1128/JB. 01525-07 Copyright  © 2008,  American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved. http://jb. asm. org/cgi/content/abstract/190/3/905? maxtoshow=hits=10RESULTFORMAT=fulltext=cholesterol+degradation+by+bacteriasearchid=1FIRSTINDEX=0resourcetype=HWCIT